Constructivism

September 18, 2012 By Comments

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A., Human Resource Development

Constructivism is a branch of cognitive psychology that has greatly impacted the thinking of instructional designers (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2005).  The fundamental point of constructivism is that the learner as an individual combines existing knowledge and experiences with new learning.  Constructivism lies within rationalism, which holds that reason is the main source of knowledge and that reality is not discovered, but constructed. 

The primary contributors to constructivism include Jean Piaget (active learning, schemes, assimilation and accommodation, etc.) and Lev S. Vygotsky (social constructivism, group work, apprenticeship, etc.)

The main assumptions of constructivism are divided into three categories; individual constructivism, social constructivism, and contextualism.

Individual Constructivism

Individual constructivism holds that knowledge is constructed by learners who are actively engaged in experiences.  The learners reflect upon these experiences and build upon their individual knowledge by adding the new experiences to their existing knowledge.

Social Constructivism

Social constructivism regards learning as collaborative, suggesting that all learning has  a shared goal or meaning, whether or not learning takes place in individual or group settings.

Contextualism

Contextualism considers the realism of learning contexts, suggesting that learning and assessment of learning should take in genuine environments.

Designing Instruction to Incorporate the Theory of Constructivism

Designing instruction to incorporate the theory of constructivism would include activities that encourage learners to discover principles by themselves.  The responsibility of the instructor is to deliver learning in a form that is suitable to the learners’ current comprehension level. 

The syllabus should be structured in such a manner as to build learning upon the knowledge and experiences the learners’ already possess.

Traditional Classroom vs.Constructivist Classroom

In comparing a traditional classroom to a constructivist classroom, some of the main differences become evident.

In Traditional Classrooms:

  • Learning is based on repetition
  • The teacher’s role is rooted in authority
  • Assessment is made through testing and correct answers
  • Learners work primarily on their own.

 In Constructivist Classrooms:

  • Learning activities are interactive and build on what the learner already knows
  • The teacher’s role is interactive
  • Assessment includes student works and points of view
  • Students work in groups

Benefits of Constructivist Learning

Because of its classroom environment that stresses collaboration and exchange of ideas, constructivist learning can be beneficial in promoting the social and communication skills of the learners.  In addition, since learning is based on the explorations and questions of the learners, learners own the material they have learned and are able to transfer this new learning into new learning experiences.

Resources

About Learning, Concept, Theories. (2008).  Behaviorism.  Retrieved June 15, 2009, from Funderstanding.  Web site:  http://www.funderstanding.com/content/behaviorism

Concept to Classroom. (2004).  Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning.  Retrieved June 12, 2009, from Thirteen ed online

                Web site:  http://thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism /index_sub1.html

Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. (2005).  The Systematic Design of Instruction (6th ed.). Boston:  Pearson Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Smith, P. L. & Ragan, T. J. (2005).  Instructional Design (3rd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey:  Wiley Jossey-Bass Education

 

 

 

 

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Audio/Video Presentations, Instructional Strategies, Resources & Tools Tagged With: , , , ,

Using Brainstorming as an Approach to Creative Problem Solving

May 23, 2012 By Comments

 

Brainstorming was created by Alex Osborn of the advertising firm Batten, Barton, Durstine, and Osborn to increase the quantity and quality of advertising ideas.  The process became known as brainstorming because the participants’ brains were used to “storm” a problem.  Some people want to discount brainstorming because it is a simple process.  Brainstorming is not to be discounted!

Brainstorming is Effective

Brainstorming is one of the most effective and most widely used group processes for generating ideas.  While the process of brainstorming is simple, it is also highly effective.  It works particularly well for identifying ideas for marketing, product issues, strategies, planning, policy, organization, leadership, staffing, motivation, and communications.  However, Brainstorming does not work particularly well with complex questions.

Basic Structure for Effective Brainstorming Sessions

The following steps provide a basic structure for effective brainstorming sessions:
1. Select a group of six to twelve people.
2. Choose a leader.
3. Choose a recorder (or two).
4. Spend no more than 30 minutes on idea generation.
5. Take a break.
6. Return and critique ideas.

Brainstorming Rules

The four rules for interactive brainstorming to be effective are as follows:
1. No judgments are placed on ideas.
2. All ideas are welcomed.
3. The goal is quantity of ideas.
4. Record all suggestions.

Other Suggestions

Brainstorming works well if each idea is recorded on a sticky note so that the ideas can later be moved, combined, refined, and/or connected. 

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A., Human Resource Development

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Audio/Video Presentations, Career Development, Instructional Strategies, Needs and Task Analysis Tagged With: , , , , , , , , , , ,

The ADDIE Instructional Design Model: Discussion of the Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate Phases

March 12, 2012 By Comments

This video discusses the events that take place during the Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate phases of the ADDIE Instructional Design Model.  For more information on the ADDIE Model, please click the following link:

http://www.eadulteducation.org/adult-learning/the-addie-instructional-design-process/

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Evaluation, Instructional Design, Instructional Strategies Tagged With: , ,

Instructional Strategies for Teaching Adults

May 10, 2011 By Comments

“Pedagogy is the art and science of teaching children” (Knowles, 1984, p. 13). This type of learning promotes dependency of the learners on the educator or instructor. 
With its content-based methodology,  pedagogy is the fundamental component of school education.

The counterpart of pedagogy is “Andragogy” which is “the art and science of helping adults learn” (Knowles, 1984, p. 13). Wit its process-based methodology, andragogy is theoretically more appropriate for adults. It is assumed that adults have capabilities to take responsibility for learning so that there is more independence from the educator or instructor.

For the reason of the differences in potentials, understandings and knowledge, various instructional strategies have been adopted for teaching adults.

References

Knowles, M. & Associates. (1984). Andragogy in action. Applying modern principles of adult education. San Francisco: Jossey Bass

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Instructional Strategies Tagged With:

The Social and Situation Theory of Learning

April 21, 2011 By Comments

The social and situation theory of learning was advanced by Bandura, Lave and Wenger, and Salomon. It views the learning process as interaction and observation in social contexts. It sees the process as movement from periphery to the centre of a community in solving the practical issues that the people are facing. It views the learning process as a social process that must be relevant to the learners and to their community as well. Its locus of learning is in the relationship between people and their environment in their social set up. The learning process should be focused on the lives of the people. People understand and are interested in learning that is surrounding them and that directly affects them.

In adult education, this theory is manifested in socialization aspect of the learners. Adult education must encourage socialization and participation in the learning process which would translate or will help the learners participate effectively in their communities. It encourages social participation in working together build a just society. It advances theories of associationalism in adult education. This helps to prepare the learners in creating association which works in their daily lives. This theory considers the relevance of the learning process to the learners and the immediate society.

The social orientation theory emphasizes on the social environment depicting the relevance of the education model to both the learner and the society. The social orientating theory sees the learning process as that which moves from the individual to the community. Therefore it sees the learning process as of more relevance to society and the individual person.

Summary

All learning theories have an aspect in themselves that may definitely help adults in their learning process. These theories take into consideration the learning environment, the contents of leaning and the impact of learning to the individual and the society. Therefore they should be the basic theories to consider when putting into practice any adult learning model.

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A., Human Resource Development

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Employee Performance, Instructional Strategies Tagged With:

The Cognitivist Theory as An Adult Learning Model

April 20, 2011 By Comments

The cognitivist theory of learning was advanced by Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Piaget, Ausubel, Bruner, and Gagne. It views the learning process as an internal intellectual process which includes the aspects of insight, processing of information, memorizing and conceiving a certain perception about what is learned. Its locus of learning is internal cognitive structuring unlike the external stimuli in the behaviorist theory. It focuses primarily on the internal structure that enables the learning process to happen. This is very important in adult education since the model used must be appropriate to the internal structures of adults. It must be understood that, adults carry a lot of issues in their minds and the model of learning used must fit their intellectual structure.

The cognitivist theory views the purpose of education as being to develop the capacity and skill to learn better by creating the necessary environment for internalization of what is learned. This is the basis of any learning process since what is learned must be understood and internalized even before it is practiced. The role of educator is seen as purely to structure the learning process and contents in a way that it can be understood easily by the learning group. This is a very essential concept in adult learning since what is being learned must be presented in a way related to what the learners are facing. Learning content must be relevant in order to draw their attention. The learning model used must take into consideration the needs of the learning group and consider how the content will help them. This is because adult learning is focused. In the adult learning process, this theory insists on the cognitive development of the learners. The content of learning must not be too difficult for the learners to understand. Adults easily learn how to learn by themselves and the learning model used should facilitate their self-directed learning.

The cognitivist theory emphasizes taking into consideration the learning content according to the cognitive ability of the learners. The cognitivist theory sees learning as a process that involves the structuring of the intellectual and cognitive processes of an individual. It sees learning as that which brings about new knowledge in an individual.

Summary

All learning theories have an aspect in themselves that may definitely help adults in their learning process. These theories take into consideration the learning environment, the contents of leaning and the impact of learning to the individual and the society. Therefore they should be the basic theories to consider when putting into practice any adult learning model.

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A., Human Resource Development

 

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Filed Under: Adult Learning, Employee Performance, Instructional Strategies Tagged With: , , , , , ,

The Behaviorist Theory as An Adult Learning Model

April 19, 2011 By Comments

Behaviorists view learning as a change in behavior. This is based on behavior theory as proposed by Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, Guthrie, Hull, Tolman and Skinner. This theory sees locus of learning as the stimuli in external environment. It is the need of the people that drives them to learning.

Adult education is especially driven by the need of people to solve the problems that surround them. The problem becomes the stimuli that stimulate people to learn. This theory views the purpose of education as bringing about a behavioral change. Most of the challenges that people face are as a result of their actions. Therefore it is their behavior that brings the challenges that confront them.

The role of the educator is viewed in this theory as being to enhance the conditions in the environment in order to obtain the desired response. Since people have the desire to learn, the educator makes available the necessary environment for the learners.

In the adult learning process, this theory is evident in its objective to bring about behavior changes intended to increase knowledge, skills, and attitudes to enhance job performance. The behavioral theory defines how the environment should be for optimal learning of the students. For effective learning to take place, the learning environment must be conducive and enabling. This theory sees the external environment as important for effective learning.

Summary

In view of learning as a process, the behaviorist theory sees learning as that which leads to change in behavior. The learning process must have an objective for changing the way things are performed. The new knowledge, skills, and attitudes acquired must bring about some change in the behavior of the adult learner.

All learning theories have characteristics that may definitely help adults in their learning process. These theories take into consideration the learning environment, the contents of leaning and the impact of learning to the individual and the society. Therefore they should be the basic theories to consider when putting into practice any adult learning model.

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A., Human Resource Development

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Career Development, Instructional Strategies Tagged With:

The Synectics Approach to Creative Thinking

March 30, 2011 By Comments

Synectics is a set of process tools which can be used in an explicit order or individually according to the requirements of the situation. Synectics incorporates the brainstorming principle of suspending judgment and broadens it to defining problems, objectives and needs. It uses metaphorical processes to stimulate thinking.

Synectics is used to spark the creative process and uncover new views to solving problems. This brainstorming tool will provide learners with a method for gaining new insights into otherwise ordinary or awkward topics. Synectics can be used with all ages and works well with learners who withdraw from conventional instructional methods.

Teacher-facilitators can use synectics in the classroom by leading learners to describe the topic, create direct analogies, describe personal analogies, identify compressed conflicts, create a new direct analogy, and reexamine the original topic.

Step 1: Describing the Topic

The teacher-facilitator chooses a word or topic and asks learners to describe the topic, either in small group discussions or by individually writing a paragraph; e.g., AUTOMOBILES. used by a car manufacturer to come up with product more appealing to consumers.

Step 2: Creating Direct Analogies

The teacher-facilitator chooses another word or topic and asks the learners to create a list that would have the same characteristics as those words or phrases listed in Step 1. A direct analogy is established to compare the two words, images, or concepts; e.g., How are AUTOMOBILES and COMFORT alike? The learners are asked to create dramatic mental images. Mental images are significant tools in the synectics process.

Step 3: Describing Personal Analogies

The learners are asked to choose one of the direct analogies and create personal analogies. Learners “become” the object they choose and then explain what it feels like to be that object; e.g., How would it feel to be an automobile that is comfortable?

Step 4: Identifying Compressed Conflicts

The learners are asked to pair words from the list created in Step 3 which seem to contradict each other. Learners should always be asked to explain why they selected the words which contradict. Learners then choose one by voting; e.g., How are environment and repair plans different?

Step 5: Creating a New Direct Analogy

With the compressed conflict pair voted upon by the learners, ask them to make a different direct analogy by selecting something that is described by the paired words; e.g., How are environment and repair plans like style, color, size, etc.?

Step 6: Reexamining the Original Topic

Go back to the original idea or problem so that the student may produce a product or description that employs the ideas created in the process. Learners may focus on the final analogy or use analogies made in the other four steps.

Summary

Synectics is dependent upon an open, permissive communication environment. A group of people who are comfortable working with each other and have developed a healthy level of disclosure trust is necessary.

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Instructional Strategies Tagged With:

Instructional Approaches to Teaching Cognitive Learning Strategies

February 26, 2011 By Comments

Learning strategies are naturally cognitively based. They can be broken down into two categories: Cognitive domain strategies (organization, rehearsal, elaboration) and Affective domain strategies (self-motivational skills such as time management, stress reduction techniques).

Seven approaches to teaching cognitive strategies are discovery and guided discovery (instructor leads the learner to discover a particular strategy), observation (cooperative application of cognitive strategies with paired learners), guided participation (the learners and instructor together determine the characteristics of a learning task), strategy instruction in books and courses (predetermined instruction on strategies), direct explanation, largely teacher directed (teaches the procedure of the strategy), dyadic instruction (one-to-one interaction between the learner and a knowledgeable adult), and self-instructional training (self-directed learning and active interactions with a teacher who provides model and feedback).

Learning strategies are generated by contrasting the new strategy with strategies the learner already knows. Assessment of performance should be ongoing and is based on the learners’ ability to apply the strategy to appropriate learning tasks.

Resources

http://www.eadulteducation.org/resources-tools/instructor-resources/instructional-strategies-for-cognitive-strategy-instruction/

http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQGSA494MVIWmTGqQA8v1P-EnqZmT0jVdVi_SjD_l4xmKPmNFVyFg

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Instructional Design, Instructional Strategies Tagged With: ,

Learning Strategies and Assessment of Psychomotor Skills

February 10, 2011 By Comments

The distinctiveness of the beginning and end points of psychomotor skills can be categorized as discrete (a single step or few steps) and continuous (having subtle beginning and ending points). Closed skills (no active influence from the environment) and open skills (influenced by the environment) are another means of categorizing psychomotor skills (Smith and Ragan, 2005). Learners can be assisted in acquiring the new psychomotor skills by employing learning strategies such as visualization of performance, mnemonics, and analogies.

Assessment of cognitive as well as psychomotor tasks is conducted through observation using a performance rating. Feedback should include a clear understanding of how well the learner performed the task.

Resources

http://www.eadulteducation.org/e-learning/instructional-strategies-for-psychomotor-skill-learning/

http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSRhUEqVKcGVLVinyYwMZJNYd6ObQEEIkUO-FHYh8iil1VAg3Ma

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Instructional Strategies
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