Using Brainstorming as an Approach to Creative Problem Solving

May 23, 2012 By Comments

 

Brainstorming was created by Alex Osborn of the advertising firm Batten, Barton, Durstine, and Osborn to increase the quantity and quality of advertising ideas.  The process became known as brainstorming because the participants’ brains were used to “storm” a problem.  Some people want to discount brainstorming because it is a simple process.  Brainstorming is not to be discounted!

Brainstorming is Effective

Brainstorming is one of the most effective and most widely used group processes for generating ideas.  While the process of brainstorming is simple, it is also highly effective.  It works particularly well for identifying ideas for marketing, product issues, strategies, planning, policy, organization, leadership, staffing, motivation, and communications.  However, Brainstorming does not work particularly well with complex questions.

Basic Structure for Effective Brainstorming Sessions

The following steps provide a basic structure for effective brainstorming sessions:
1. Select a group of six to twelve people.
2. Choose a leader.
3. Choose a recorder (or two).
4. Spend no more than 30 minutes on idea generation.
5. Take a break.
6. Return and critique ideas.

Brainstorming Rules

The four rules for interactive brainstorming to be effective are as follows:
1. No judgments are placed on ideas.
2. All ideas are welcomed.
3. The goal is quantity of ideas.
4. Record all suggestions.

Other Suggestions

Brainstorming works well if each idea is recorded on a sticky note so that the ideas can later be moved, combined, refined, and/or connected. 

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A., Human Resource Development

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Audio/Video Presentations, Career Development, Instructional Strategies, Needs and Task Analysis Tagged With: , , , , , , , , , , ,

Approaches to Identification of Training Needs

July 20, 2011 By Comments

Employee training refers to the teaching of specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSA) to an employee. It is any effort to improve current or future employee performance by enhancing an employee’s ability to perform through learning, usually by altering the employee’s attitude or increasing his or her skills and knowledge. The need for training is determined by an employee’s performance deficiency, or a performance gap.

Training needs analysis is the method of determining the organization’s training needs and determines whether the organization’s needs, goals, and problems can be met or managed by training.  Training needs can be identified at the organizational, departmental and occupational levels.

Training Needs at the Organizational Level

Training needs analysis at the organizational level compares and contrasts training needs against business strategies and goals. Analysis at this level is the essential because it begins with assessing the organization’s strategic direction. Analysis at this level determines whether training will be the proper means by which specific organizational goals are accomplished, or whether some other form of intervention would be more suitable.

One way of implementing an organizational training needs analysis is through a SWOT analysis.  SWOT stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats.  The strengths of an organization are reinforced with continued training and preservation of the present situation.  An organization’s weaknesses are managed with training interventions.  Opportunities are balanced against costs, and Threats are minimized by recognizing areas where training interventions could enhance the performance of employees and eventually, of the organization.

Training Needs at the Departmental Level

Personalized resolutions for particular departments or teams need to be assessed. A departmental SWOT analysis can be performed to assess these needs.

Training Needs at the Occupational Level

Training needs at the occupational level are closely linked with the needs of employees. Line managers can help resolve issues that relate to specific jobs or occupations. Individual needs can then be associated with the competence of each employee within their roles. Methods for analyzing the needs of employees include:

  • Performance appraisals
  • Performance reviews
  • Feedback
  • Assessments
  • Observations
  • Interviews
  • Data analysis

Summary

The results of the training needs analysis allows the identification of training goals by answering what needs to be done.  The training needs analysis identifies which employees need training and what type of training is needed.  Training is not always the best solution to the given situation, and it is almost never the only solution.  Other solutions which are more suitable may also be recommended.  These include responsibility and role defining, improved communication, job rotation, clarification of job descriptions, and performance support tools. The recommendation is often a blended solution of both training and some other action.

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A., Human Resource Development

Filed Under: Employee Performance, Needs and Task Analysis Tagged With: , ,

The Four Key Steps of Training Needs Analysis

July 15, 2011 By Comments

Training needs analysis has different characterizations depending on the objective of the situation.   First of all, it is the evaluation of a situation to determine whether or not training will enhance the performance of an employee or employees, or close or significantly narrow a performance gap.  Secondly, it is the assessment of the training results and training that takes place in order to remove the gap in the mastery and actual performance.  The training need is equivalent to the mastery performance minus the actual performance (Training need=Mastery performance-Actual performance).

A training needs analysis involves four key steps:

  1. Identifying the goals and objectives of the organization;
  2. Gathering information about the knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSA) of the employees that are currently needed will be needed in the future;
  3. Analyzing the information gathered; and 
  4. Identifying the performance gaps that exist between the current situation and what is/will be required.

Identifying the Goals and Objectives of the Organization

It is important to identify the goals and objectives of the organization in order to determine which areas of the overall strategic plan are the current focus of attention.  The goals and objectives the organization is attempting to accomplish should be understood by all members of the organization.  

Gathering Information

Once the goals and the objectives of the organization are clearly stated, the next step is to gather information about what needs to be accomplished, what employees need to know or to do in order that the objective is accomplished, what KSA employees already possess, and what KSA may be needed to continue or enhance the performance required to achieve the objective.

Analyzing the Information Gathered

The analysis of information gathered should answer the following questions:

  1. What performance gaps exist in the KSA of current employees to perform their jobs at present?
  2. What performance gaps exist in the KSA of current employees to perform their jobs in the future?

Training needs analysis allows for existing skills gaps relating to current job descriptions and possible skills gaps for future development. The analysis of information gathered channels into the final stage of the training needs analysis process.

Identifying the Performance Gap

A performance gap is the behavioral area not performed to mastery level when measuring task performance. Some performance gaps are quite easy to measure.

In a performance analysis of  present performance, the Actual Performance (AP) is subtracted from the Mastery Performance (MP) to measure the Performance Gap (PG), or training need. This measurement, MP-AP=PG, becomes the gap that must be closed or significantly narrowed in order to achieve the objective.

Similarly, to plan for future goals and objectives, the Actual Performance (AP) and the Future Performance (FP) is determined.  The difference between FP and AP is the Performance Gap (GP).

Not all performance gaps can be closed or significantly narrowed by training.  Some performance gaps may be the result of problems within the workplace or other external factors. Solutions other than training which are more suitable to the situation may also be recommended.  These include responsibility and role defining, improved communication, job rotation, clarification of job descriptions, and performance support tools. The recommendation can be a blended solution of both training and some other action.

Summary

The significance of a training needs analysis can be better understood by exploring the consequences of a nonexistent training needs analysis. A nonexistent training needs analysis can be a contributing factor to a higher percentage of workforce turnover, additional retention costs, poor employee performance, loss of business, and loss of profits. 

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A., Human Resource Development

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Employee Performance, Needs and Task Analysis Tagged With: , , , ,

Employee Training Needs Analysis

July 10, 2011 By Comments

Employee training refers to the teaching of specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSA)  to an employee. It is any effort to improve current or future employee performance by enhancing an employee’s ability to perform through learning, usually by altering the employee’s attitude or increasing his or her skills and knowledge. The need for training is determined by an employee’s performance deficiency, or a performance gap.

Training Needs Analysis

Training needs analysis has different characterizations depending on the objective of the situation.   First of all, it is the evaluation of a situation to determine whether or not training will enhance the performance of an employee or employees, or close or significantly narrow a performance gap.  Secondly, it is the assessment of the training results and training that takes place in order to remove the gap in the mastery and actual performance.  The training need is equivalent to the mastery performance minus the actual performance (Training need=Mastery performance-Actual performance).

Training needs analysis is the method of determining the organization’s training needs and determines whether the organization’s needs, objectives, and problems can be met or managed by training. Within this framework, needs analysis is a three-step practice:

  1. Organizational analysis – a determination of which organizational goals can be gained through employee training and where in the organization the training is needed;
  2. Task analysis – a determination of knowledge, skills, or attitudes must the employee learn in order to perform his or her job at the mastery performance level, and the content of the training; and
  3. Employee analysis – a determination of which individual need training and for which knowledge, skills, or attitudes.

Training needs analysis plays a significant part in planning the use of available training and development resources. It ensures that resources are spent on essential training and development that will help move the organization toward meeting its goals and objectives. In the same manner, it can help identify occasions where training might not be the best solution to the given situation.

Conducting a training needs analysis is a vital preliminary step to training design and development and can considerably persuade the overall effectiveness of employee training programs.  It serves as the foundation for the design, development, implementation, and evaluation of the employee training program.

Summary

The existence and comprehensiveness of training needs analysis should be related to the overall effectiveness of employee training because it provides the method whereby the questions essential to successful employee training programs can be resolved. In the design and development of employee training programs, methodical efforts to assess the training needs of the organization, determine the job requirements, and determine which employees need training and the type of training to be delivered, result in more effective employee training. Training needs analysis results in the specification of the training objectives that, in turn, identifies or determines the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to be trained.

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A., Human Resource Development

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Career Development, Needs and Task Analysis Tagged With:

Determining the Need for Training

May 31, 2011 By Comments

Organizations need to adjust to changing external as well as internal environments of the organization so that they are aligned with today’s rapidly changing world. With rapid changes in technology, demographics, and globalization comes the need for newer methods of accomplishing things within the organization. However, newer technology, processes and procedures are often difficult for employees to comprehend.  This lack of comprehension can lead to difficulties in adjusting to the work environment. For this reason, it is essential that employees be trained and provided with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSA) that will enable them to comprehend the new operations of the organization. Training also assists them in defining their own roles and responsibilities so that the organization is well balanced and the tasks are properly dispersed.

Training Needs Assessment Is A Process

Training needs assessment is a process that must be constructed to meet each unique situation.  The need for training can arise due to a variety of circumstances.  Each situation has a unique plan and goal. Training needs assessment entails an evaluation and analysis of a particular situation.  It is an information based and detailed procedure. Several methodologies can be used to obtain the information to be analyzed.  These methodologies include surveys, face-to-face interviews, covert and overt observation, record examination, and focus groups. Not every methodology and procedure of attaining information is appropriate in every situation.  Training needs assessment is a particularly personalized procedure which is different for every circumstance.

Training Needs Assessment Has Different Characterizations

Training needs assessment has different characterizations depending on the objective of the situation.   First of all, it is the evaluation of a situation to determine whether or not training will enhance the performance of an employee or employees, or close or significantly narrow a performance gap.  Secondly, it is the assessment of the training results and training that takes place in order to remove the gap in the mastery and actual performance.

A Three-Step System

Training needs assessment can also be defined as a system with three steps; input, processing and output. The input is all the information that is obtained from various sources of data collection.  Process is the assessment and examination of all variables and situations, and Output is the conclusion and suggestions of the next steps to be taken and completed. The next steps suggested include training, but it also might be in opposition to training.  Training needs analysis does not necessarily mean that it supports training.  Training is not always the best solution to the given situation.  Other solutions which are more suitable may also be recommended.  These include responsibility and role defining, improved communication, job rotation, clarification of job descriptions, and performance support tools. The recommendation can be a blended solution of both training and some other action.

Summary

When you wish to improve organizational performance or resolve a problem that has been observed or brought to the attention of members of an organization, a training needs assessment is warranted. The initiative behind a training needs assessment is to review the system, recognize a need, assemble an evaluation (measurement instrument) that identifies the objective, choose the intervention, and then develop content and context that will close or significantly narrow the gap between the need and the objective.

Filed Under: Employee Performance, Needs and Task Analysis

When Does A Training Need Exist?

May 1, 2011 By Comments

A training need exists when a certain weakness can be overcome by the application of systematic training. This is in fact implied in the meaning of the term ‘training need’ as it is intended in the theory and practice of training. The word need suggests some kind of deficit somewhere in an individual’s ability to perform.

Training, on the other hand, suggests that this deficit can be overcome by systematic training. The deficit is normally a gap between the desired level of performance and the actual level of performance. Although it might be difficult to measure the gap accurately, supervisors and line managers can point out training needs from their observation which facilitates evaluating the performance of each employee and comparing it to other employees’ performance.

Three Main Areas of Training Needs

Three main areas to which the term training need may be applied are at the organizational level, at the occupational level, or at the individual level.

At the organizational level the training needs are related to the mission of the organization, its strategic plans and any immediate change in strategies in order to meet changes in the market and any other major factors affecting the industry.

At the occupational level the training need is related to the skills, knowledge, and attitudes (KSA) required for the performance of any job. The need here is related to the occupation rather than an individual. When identified as a need for an occupation, it will generally affect a number of individuals performing the duties of that occupation.

When the training needs have been identified at the organization and occupational levels, the needs analysis should proceed to identifying those individuals who need training.

It is important for the identification of the training needs to be well planned in order that it facilitates the information for the organisation’s need of training to support its strategies and to solve its problems. It is important to note that not all problems of HRD are solved by training. When you wish to improve organizational performance or resolve a problem that has been observed or brought to the attention of members of an organization, a performance analysis is warranted. The initiative behind a performance analysis is to review the system, recognize a need, assemble an evaluation (measurement instrument) that identifies the objective, choose the intervention, and then develop content and context that will close or significantly narrow the gap between the need and the objective.

Gathering information on training needs

It is the responsibility of the HRD professional to plan and implement the needs analysis process. Generally, the data gathering methods used include survey questionnaires, interviews, management requests, performance appraisal recommendations, observation questionnaires completed by immediate superiors, skills tests, and the organization’s records and documents that indicate training needs. These records and documents include productivity, sales and cost records, employee performance evaluation and merit ratings, accidents reports, employee attendance records, employee grievance filings and turnover rates, and conducting one-on-one interviews.

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A., Human Resource Development

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Employee Performance, Needs and Task Analysis Tagged With: , , ,

Conducting an Instructional Analysis

April 9, 2011 By Comments

The Analysis Phase of the ADDIE (Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate) instructional design model is the basis for all other phases of instructional design. This phase can be broken down into Performance Analysis, Instructional Analysis, Audience Analysis, and Delineate Objectives. This article discusses conducting an instructional analysis.

Following a performance analysis where it has been determined that training is the solution, an instructional analysis is conducted. The purpose of conducting an instructional analysis is to define training content, goals, and objectives. Its objective is to break down the instructional goal into its component parts.

Creating an Instructional Analysis

During the instructional analysis step, the instructional designer might conduct a task analysis and create a competency map for learners. These tools help the instructional designer define what learners must be able to do once they have completed the training.

Learners rely on the instructional designer to provide them with an accurate information and steps. An instructional analysis ensures that the course will:

  • Incorporate all information and steps that learners will need to know
  • Leave out information and steps that learners already know
  • Leave out information and steps that learners don’t need to know

The more accurate the instructional analysis, the easier the training will be for the learners.

Look at Training from the Perspective of the Learner

If a subject matter expert were consulted to make a list of steps for a task, many steps they intuitively perform would most likely be left out. This is because the subject matter expert has knowledge of which he or she may be unaware. This rather implicit type of knowledge is known as tacit knowledge. Tacit learning involves knowing how to do something rather than knowing who, what, or why. It involves learning and skill but not in a way that can be easily written down. A subject matter expert can perform the right steps without consciously thinking about each one. When an instructional designer conducts an instructional analysis, they observe the process from a new perspective. They look for “tacit” knowledge and steps that the subject matter expert never knowingly thinks about.

Imagine you work in a manufacturing plant and you want to teach someone how to use sweeping compound when sweeping the floor. You probably perform this task every day, so you don’t consciously think about all of the monotonous details it takes to effectively use the sweeping compound. You’re a subject matter expert who is instinctively capable of performing the task. If you were to write down each step in detail, you would actually have to stop and think about each step that you perform:

  •  Scoop sweeping compound
  •  Spread sweeping compound
  •  Sweep sweeping compound, dirt, and debris

That’s a basic task analysis, but there are some assumptions here that could cause problems for someone just learning how to use sweeping compound:

  • With what do you scoop the sweeping compound?
  • How and with what do you spread the sweeping compound?
  • Where should you begin sweeping?
  • Where should you finish sweeping?

Summary

If a learner doesn’t know about a step or how to properly perform a step, it could mean the difference between successfully completing the task and a gap in performance. The instructional analysis assures that the training content exactly matches what learners need to know so that they will be able to do what the training was designed to teach them.

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Instructional Design, Needs and Task Analysis Tagged With: , , ,

Improving Organization Performance through Performance Analysis

April 7, 2011 By Comments

When you wish to improve organizational performance or resolve a problem that has been observed or brought to the attention of members of an organization, a performance analysis is warranted.

According to Phillips (2002), there are four performance improvement needs: Business, Job Performance, Training, and Individual (Phillips, 2002).

When a performance analysis is carried out, the long term approach should be taken to make certain that the performance enhancement initiative connects with the organization’s mission, vision, and values. This ties each need with a metric to ensure that it actually does what it is intended to do. This is best accomplished by linking performance analysis needs with Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels of Evaluations (Phillips, 2002):

  • Business Needs are linked to Results or Impact (level 4)
  • Job Performance Needs are linked to Behavior (level 3)
  • Training Needs are linked to learning (level 2)
  • Individual Needs are linked to Reaction (level 1)

Business Needs

The problem or performance initiative is investigated to determine how it supports the organization’s mission, vision, and/or goals. Solving a problem or improving a process is equal to or better than ROI (return on investment). Focusing strictly on ROI cause many organizations to focus only on conserving costs which could lead to a reduction in or elimination of the mainstay of a business.  Working to enhance a process or performance that sustains an organization’s mission, vision, and/or goals is a tactic that can improve productivity bringing about measurable ROI.

Job Performance Needs

When analyzing job performance, the job’s processes, environment, and actual performance verses masterful performance need to be reviewed.

Some tools that should help are:

After business needs and job performance needs have been evaluated, the processes and performances that need to be enhanced should be evident.  The next step is to examine the findings to determine what performance interventions, if any, are needed (training and development, performance support, coaching, mentoring, etc.).  

Training Needs

In this part of the analysis, you need to think beyond training to determine what kind of performance intervention will actually close or significantly narrow the performance gap.

As performance is examined for any needed interventions, determine what the performer needs to know in order for the performance intervention to be successful and how learning requirements will be evaluated. In addition, determine how learning requirements will be evaluated.

Individual Needs

The Individual Needs Analysis is the identification of the target population. Individual needs delve deeper than training needs.  This step ensures that the performance intervention is consistent with individual requirements.

Summary

The initiative behind a performance analysis is to review the system, recognize a need, assemble an evaluation (measurement instrument) that identifies the objective, choose the intervention, and then develop content and context that will close or significantly narrow the gap between the need and the objective.

References

Phillips, J. & and Phillips, P. “Reasons Why Training & Development Fails…and What You Can Do About It.” Training Magazine, September 2002 (pp. 78-85).

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/analysis/analysis_system.jpg

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Needs and Task Analysis Tagged With: , , , , , ,

One-On-One Interviews for Data Collection

March 15, 2011 By Comments

According to Rossett (1999), interviews are the most common way of gathering performance analysis data.  Conducting one-on-one interviews with employees, managers, and executives allows them an opportunity to share ideas, clarify misconceptions, and to express their opinions, perspectives and points of view (Gilley, Eggland, & Gilley, 1989). 

During a one-on-one interview, the interviewer asks questions of the interviewee in an attempt to seek opinions.  The one-on-one interview seeks to unveil data that is not observable, such as expertise or feelings. 

What types of questions are asked?

Rossett (1999), categorizes interview questions into six kinds:

  • Hypothetical
  • Ideal Position
  • Devil’s Advocate
  • Flawed Position
  • Interpretive
  • Straw

Hypothetical questions encourage the interviewee to think about how the problem or situation might be handled.  These sentences begin with words like how might, suppose, and what if

Ideal position questions urge the interviewee to imagine masterful performance for example.  If you were witnessing masterful performance, what would it look like?

Devil’s Advocate questions encourage the interviewee to take an opposing position.  If the interviewee has expressed favoritism toward training as a solution to the problem, for example, ask the interviewee to describe performance if training were not an option.

Flawed Position questions encourage the interviewee to speculate on the opposite.  If you are discussing masterful performance for example, ask the interviewee to describe the opposite (poor performance).

Interpretive questions tie together responses to previous questions and encourage reaction from the interviewee.  Ask the interviewee to suggest probable causes for the performance problem.

Straw questions encourage responses from the interviewee.

If the performance problem relates to letter composition for example, you may ask the interviewee to look at a sample letter and tell you what is liked or disliked about its composition.

Advantages and Disadvantages of One-On-One Interviews

Advantages Disadvantages
More than just information is revealed. An opportunity is provided to observe body language, gestures, and nonverbal behaviors that may be more telling than spoken ideas and opinions.  A feel for the culture of the organization is obtained. Unpredictable, the information gathered or outcomes of the meeting cannot be controlled.
Flexible but should be created around a structured framework to maintain continuity from one individual to the next. Can be viewed by the interviewee as an opportunity to vent frustration or anger.  Interviewers should remain neutral, expressing no opinions one way or another.
Build relationships with members of the organization. Interviewing techniques are difficult to master.  HRD (human resource development) professional must develop the skills necessary to discuss difficult issues openly and honestly while maintaining focus.

References

Gilley, J., Eggland, S., and Gilley, A. M. (1989).  Principles of Human Resource Development.  New York, NY:  Basic Books.

Rossett, A. (1999).  First Things Fast: A Handbook for Performance Analysis.  San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Needs and Task Analysis Tagged With: , , , , ,

Good Training Doesn’t Just “Happen”

March 9, 2011 By Comments

A need for training exists when there is a gap between the desired performance (what a person is required to do in order to perform his/her job competently) and the actual performance (how a person is performing his/her job presently). This gap is referred to as a skills gap. In other words, a skills gap is the difference between the skills, knowledge and/or abilities needed for the job and the skills, knowledge, and/or abilities possessed by the employee.

Performing a needs analysis is the first step in designing instruction and is critical for a successful training program. The purpose of a needs analysis is to determine whether or not training is the best solution to the problem and identify what type of training (or performance support) is needed to fill the skills gap. This step is often overlooked by organizations due to time or budget constraints or lack of apparent worth. However, overlooking or eliminating the needs analysis can cause significant problems. Time, money, and valuable resources may be wasted on unnecessary or ineffective training.

A needs analysis is conducted for the following reasons:

  • To determine whether training is needed to close or narrow the skills gap
  • To determine causes of poor performance
  • To determine content and scope of training
  • To determine desired training outcomes
  • To provide a basis of measurement
  • To gain management support

Performing a training needs analysis is most appropriate when training is requested for a problem (performance issue), rollout (when new information systems or business processes are introduced), people development, and strategy development.

The Six Essential Steps to Conducting a Training Needs Analysis

Step One – Identify/Analyze Problem Needs

In the step, the need is clarified, the central initiator of the problem is determined, and expectations in the process are clarified.

Step Two – Determine Design of Needs Analysis

In this step, the questions that need to be answered are determined as well as the informational/data resources.

Step Three – Collect Data

In this step, the data collection methods are determined, and a plan for data collection is developmed and implemented.

Step Four – Analyze Data

In this step, data is organized and interpreted.

Step Five – Form Conclusions 

In this step, a report is written, an oral presentation is made, and a determination is made as to whether or not training is the next step. 

Step Six – Develop Action Plan 

In this step, the results are used as the basis for training design, development and evaluation, if it is determined that training is the best solution to the problem.

Conducting a thorough training needs analysis is highly recommended but may not always be possible with constraints such as time, budget, and resources. Rather than completely by-stepping the analysis, perform an analysis with the time, budget, and resources available. At the very minimum, clarify the need, define the skills gap (what the employee is doing versus what he/she should be doing), determine the central initiator, and develop an action plan.

Resources

http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTdd6X3nd_D4zCjzZTXX0gXbhT28__O-glR91H4Gh4RMuGFBDtk

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Needs and Task Analysis Tagged With: , , , ,
« Older Posts
 
In case you missed it, Beginning Spanish for the Native English Speaking Adult Learner, Lesson 2: Pronunciation http://t.co/hydJ9COdy42 months ago