Training ROI Calculator

June 19, 2012 By Comments

 

Assessing Training Effectiveness

Assessing training effectiveness often entails using the four-level model developed by Donald Kirkpatrick (1994). According to this model, training evaluation should always begin with reaction to the training (level one), and then, as time and budget allows, should move sequentially through learning, transfer, and results – levels two, three, and four. Information from each prior level serves as a base for the next level’s evaluation. Thus, each successive level represents a more precise measure of the effectiveness of the training program, but at the same time requires a more rigorous and time-consuming analysis.

The Fifth Level of Evaluation

Kirkpatrick’s four-level model, however, does not require a specific cost savings to be ascertained. To obtain a true return on investment (ROI) valuation, the cost savings of the training program are compared to the cost of implementing the training program. According to Phillips (2005), this process moves Kirkpatrick’s four-level model to the next level. During the fifth level of evaluation, Level 4 data is collected, converted to monetary values, and compared to the cost of the program to denote the return on the training program’s investment..

ROI Calculation

The ROI formula, according to Phillips (2005), is the annual net program benefits divided by program costs, where the net benefits are the monetary value of the benefits minus the costs of the program. Phillips (2005) ROI formula is as follows:

ROI (%) = Benefits – Costs x 100 ÷ Costs

As an example, let’s assume that the benefits of a project management training program, isolated from other factors occurring within the organization, are $350,000.
Let’s also assume that the total cost of the program is $125,000.
The net program benefits are $350,000 – $125,000 = $225,000.
Following the formula above:
ROI = $225,000/$125,000 (1.8) x 100
ROI = 180%; thus for every $1.00 invested, $1.80 is returned after the costs of the project management training program are recovered.

ROI Calculator

The ROI Calculator is designed to help you calculate the ROI of a training program.

Summary

Most organizations view the process of measuring ROI as requiring too many resources. It is perceived as difficult, time-consuming, labor intensive, and expensive. Nevertheless, if the worth of the chief learning officer (CLO) and the training function are to be demonstrated, some process must be utilized to establish the value of learning at the corporate level. Evaluation determines the worth, value, or meaning of a training program, and whether or not and to what degree evaluation is performed determines the worth, value, or meaning of the CLO. CLOs would be jeopardizing their value to an organization if they are not equipped to provide the heads of an organization with evidence of a training program’s success.

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A., Human Resource Development

Resources

Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1994). Evaluating Training Programs. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.

Phillips, P., & Phillips, J. (2005). Return on Investment (ROI) Basics. Alexandria: ASTD Press.

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Employee Performance, Evaluation, Instructor Resources, Resources & Tools Tagged With: , , ,

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

April 27, 2011 By Comments

There are two key aspects of Jean Piaget’s developmental theory. The first is the aspect of knowing and the second is the aspect of acquiring more knowledge. Piaget as a biologist was interested in how organisms adapt. According to Piaget, mental organizations or schemes, as he referred to them, control the behavior of an organism (Learning, 17th June 2008). He further defines the behavior of an organism as the organism’s adaptation to the environment. He goes on to argue that the adaptation is as a result of the biological need for balance between mental organization and the environment.

In his cognitive development theory, Piaget argues that children are born with reflexes, which naturally would affect their behavior as organisms but in humans these reflexes are replaced by acquired behavior. The cognitive development theory further describes two processes, assimilation and accommodation, that are used by humans in their attempt to adapt. Piaget defines assimilation as the process by which humans use or transform the environment to fit into the existing cognitive structures. In his theory, accommodation is defined as the process by which cognitive structures are changed in order to fit into the environment. The theory further defines structures as a complicated behavior. Piaget’s theory suggests that structure also has a tendency to become complicated. Therefore, there is a need to organize them in a hierarchical manner from general to specific structures.

The cognitive development theory by Piaget divides the development cycle into four stages. These stages are infancy, toddler and early childhood, elementary and early adolescent, and adolescent an adulthood (TIP, 15th June 2008). The first stage of infancy or sensorimotor, divided into six sub-stages, is characterized by the use of symbols to show intelligence. Knowledge is limited and is generally based on interaction. The memory ability is developed by the age of seven months. The second stage is the pre-operational or early childhood stage where the use of symbols, language maturity, imagination and memory development are measures of a child’s intelligence. The child in this stage thinks in a self-centered, irreversible and illogical manner. The third is the concrete operational stage, also known as the elementary adolescent stage. In this stage intelligence is viewed through the individual’s ability to manipulate symbols and relate them to abstract objects. The self centered approach to thinking diminishes and is replaced by a more operational way of thinking. The fourth stage is the formal operational stage which contains individuals in their adolescent and adulthood. Initially this stage is characterized by the reappearance of self centered thoughts. Use of logical symbols and the ability to relate them to complex systems is the key manner in which intelligence is quantified.

According to Piaget, not all adults attain this formal operational level as most adults don’t think as prescribed by the stage but think rather “informally”. Piaget further stresses that it is important to model the education system to fit the given theory by putting more emphasis on constructive and discovery learning.

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A., Human Resource Development

Resources

Learning (2008) Piaget’s developmental theory Retrieved on 17 Jun 2008 from http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/piaget.htm

TIP (2007) genetics Epistemology. Retrieved on 15 Jun 2008 from http://tip.psychology.org/piaget.html

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Instructor Resources, Resources & Tools Tagged With: ,

Children and Adults Learn Differently

April 24, 2011 By Comments

Child learning is built on the concept that children need to be fully guided on what they need to learn, how they will learn it and when it will be learned. “Pedagogy is the art and science of teaching children” (Knowles, 1984, p. 13). This type of learning promotes dependency of the learners on the educator or instructor.  The counterpart of pedagogy is “Andragogy” which is “the art and science of helping adults learn” (Knowles, 1984, p. 13). It is assumed that adults have capabilities to take responsibility for learning so that there is more independence from the educator or instructor.

Basing Andragogy on six assumptions about the adult learner, Knowles distinguished andragogy from other areas of education, especially pedagogy. Although Knowles’ assumptions sparked controversy from other learning theorists such as Davenport and Davenport, Hartree, Grace, Sandlin, Alfred, Lee, St. Clair, and Rachel, Malcolm Knowles is known as the “Father of Andragogy”, and is considered a major thinker of andragogy.

Curricula for child learning are very much controlled. They are age specific so that children depend much on what the teacher will teach.  It is expected that the teacher will provide all the answers. For adult learners, teachers do not have much control of the curriculum and they are not expected to provide answers but only to guide the adults to find the answers. It is expected that adults have fundamental knowledge and experience so that their kind of learning is more self-directed.

Children are more subject-centered while adults are more performance-centered

When children learn, they are guided by role models and substitute knowledge and experiences of others. Teachers tell them when situations are worth following and when situations are to be avoided. Adults learn by performing in their own environment and problem situations. Children’s learning is enhanced by rewards and punishments. To recognize their acquired learning and also to encourage them to learn more, they are provided with rewards like high grades and verbal praise. Adults are more goal-oriented. Their readiness allows them to immediately apply their learning to achieve their goals. 

Speck (1996) notes that the following important points of adult learning theory should be considered when professional development activities are designed for educators:

  • “Adults will commit to learning when the goals and objectives are considered realistic and important to them. Application in the ‘real world’ is important and relevant to the adult learner’s personal and professional needs.
  • Adults want to be the origin of their own learning and will resist learning activities they believe are an attack on their competence. Thus, professional development needs to give participants some control over the what, who, how, why, when, and where of their learning.
  • Adult learners need to see that the professional development learning and their day-to-day activities are related and relevant.
  • Adult learners need direct, concrete experiences in which they apply the learning in real work.
  • Adult learning has ego involved. Professional development must be structured to provide support from peers and to reduce the fear of judgment during learning.
  • Adults need to receive feedback on how they are doing and the results of their efforts. Opportunities must be built into professional development activities that allow the learner to practice the learning and receive structured, helpful feedback.
  • Adults need to participate in small-group activities during the learning to move them beyond understanding to application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Small-group activities provide an opportunity to share, reflect, and generalize their learning experiences.
  • Adult learners come to learning with a wide range of previous experiences, knowledge, self-direction, interests, and competencies. This diversity must be accommodated in the professional development planning.
  • Transfer of learning for adults is not automatic and must be facilitated. Coaching and other kinds of follow-up support are needed to help adult learners transfer learning into daily practice so that it is sustained.” (pp. 36-37)

References

Knowles, M. & Associates. (1984). Andragogy in action. Applying modern principles of adult education. San Francisco: Jossey Bass

Speck, M. (1996).  Adult learning theory.  Retrieved on April 4, 2011 from www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/technlgy/te10lk12.htm

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A., Human Resource Development

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Instructor Resources, Resources & Tools Tagged With: , ,

Ten Tips for Delivering Engaging Training Sessions to Adults

March 17, 2011 By Comments

When delivering training sessions to adults take into consideration that adults often have many other concerns that they could be thinking about during this time. If they are not effectively engaged in your training session, they could “shut down” and direct their focus to those other concerns.

Below are ten tips on maintaining effectively engaged adult learners:

#1 – Start the Training Session with an Ice Breaker

Ice Breakers can be an interactive and often fun method of beginning a training session. By getting to know each other, getting to know the facilitators and learning about the objectives of the event, the adult learners can become engaged in the training session and are more likely to remain engaged throughout the session.

#2 – Body Language and Movement Around the Room

Make sure your body language communicates your enthusiasm for the training objective. Likewise, moving around the room instead of sitting in one place is an effective way of engaging participants.

#3 – Eye Contact

Eye contact can assist in conveying your message by enabling you to identify the participants who may be losing their attention to the session and to establish a connection between you and the participants.

#4 – Facial Expression and Confidence

Since our faces show emotions, opinions, and moods, it is important for you to maintain a facial expression that shows how enthusiastic you are about the course objective. Be aware also of how your face communicates your feelings about the participants and your role as their trainer.

#5 – Voice: Volume, Variety, Pace, Tone, and Clarity

Voices are just as unique as faces. While some vocal qualities are genetic, you can develop vocal habits that can be used to your advantage. Speak loud enough for all to hear but not so loud as to annoy the participants. Speak slow enough to be understood but fast enough to keep the learners engaged. Speak with confidence and enthusiasm to inspire.

#6 – Asking Questions and Leading Discussion

Asking effective questions allows you to ascertain what participants know both before and after information is presented. Questioning is also an excellent way to gain their attention and to invite participants to think, become engaged, and remains on task. This Instructor’s Manual provides you with many thought-provoking questions to engage participants effectively.

#7 – Asking a Question

When asking a question, pause and then, if necessary, repeat it. While awaiting a response, patiently allow time for the participants to think (usually 3-4 seconds); resist the temptation to answer your own question. Direct a question to the whole group. Don’t allow everyone else to avoid thinking about an answer by calling on one participant before you pose the question.

#8 – Awaiting a Response

If the group is having difficulty answering a question, rephrase it and move around the room, making eye contact as you await a response (usually 3-4 seconds). Allow a few hands to go up since the same participant is often the first to put his or her hand up. Then, if no one appears ready to give a response, call on someone and invite him or her to answer as well as possible, and then proceed to engage others in the same manner.

#9 – Reacting to Responses

Affirm acceptable responses and invite other participants to help if someone responds with incorrect information or has no response. Show enthusiasm for the responses so participants feel encouraged to respond to further questions.

#10 – Leading Discussions

Discussions are an important means of assessing participants’ understanding of a topic. The discussions promote active engagement in learning and allow the participants an opportunity to express themselves. Initiate discussions by asking questions that go beyond retrieving information and invite individual thoughts, opinions, and feelings. Invite more than one response to a question and then ask for reactions to the earlier responses. Occasionally summarize what you heard and invite more discussion. Encourage respectful listening and assure confidentiality.

Resources

http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQ5WOeTL0P98FYE-Z-UhtBQIIEodFt56BsG_Ulkk3f5Eeg0-7aB

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Instructional Design, Instructor Resources Tagged With: , , , , , , , , , ,

Instructional Strategies Provide a Plan for Assisting Learners

January 21, 2011 By Comments

Instructional strategies provide a plan for assisting the learners with their efforts for each performance objective. Instructional strategies take the form of a lesson plan or a set of production specifications. The purpose is to outline how instructional activities will relate to, and assist the learner with meeting, the performance objectives. These strategies include the following:

  • Audio/visual instructional media
  • Demonstration
  • Discussions
  • Guided Observation
  • Lecture
  • Practice and feedback
  • Question and answer periods
  • Reading
  • Reflection
  • Role-Playing
  • Simulated job settings

Instructor-led instructional strategies produce a guide to help implement the goal of the lesson plan without necessarily conveying its exact content to the learners. The instructor gives directions, refers learners to appropriate materials, directs the class activities, and supplements existing materials with direct instruction. Learner-centered strategies present a learning objective, an activity guide, the material to be viewed or read, practice exercises, and a self-check testing system for the learner.

Resources

http://www.eadulteducation.org/adult-learning/instructor-led-and-learner-centered-instructional-strategies/

http://cdn-viper.demandvideo.com/media/3acbd70b-18db-4e2c-84fc-12911abf86da/jpeg/7707484a-6ad8-48ca-bc9c-30297cf598ef_2.jpg

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Instructional Strategies, Instructor Resources Tagged With: ,

Temperament Affects Learning and Teaching Styles

December 31, 2010 By Comments

Personality can be defined as an individual’s outer and inner characteristics that determine how one is perceived by others.  It is the individual’s behavioral characteristics.  Temperament and character comprise the two sides of personality.  An individual’s temperament is a combination of the inherent form of human nature and a pattern of tendencies developed through environmental influences.  An individual’s character is developed through the interaction of temperament and environment. 

The four temperaments identified by Dr. David Keirsey (1998), and a short description of each are as follows:

The Idealist (Diplomatic Skill Set)

The Idealist’s core needs are for the meaning and significance that result in having a sense of purpose and working toward some greater good. Idealists need to have a sense of unique identity. They value unity, self-actualization, and authenticity. Idealists prefer cooperative interactions with a focus on ethics and morality. Idealists tend to be gifted at unifying diverse peoples and helping individuals realize their potential. They build bridges between people through empathy and clarification of deeper issues.

The Guardian (Logistical Skill Set)

The Guardian’s core needs are for group membership and responsibility. Guardians need to know they are doing the responsible thing. They value stability, security and a sense of community. They trust hierarchy and authority and may be surprised when others go against these social structures. Guardians know how things have always been done, and so they anticipate where things can go wrong. They have a knack for attending to rules, procedures, and protocol.

The Rational (Strategic Skill Set)

The Rational’s core needs are for mastery of concepts, knowledge, and competence. Rationals want to understand the operating principles of the universe and to learn or even develop theories for everything. They value expertise, logical consistency, concepts and ideas, and seek progress. They abstractly analyze a situation and consider previously unthinkable of possibilities. Research, analysis, searching for patterns, and developing hypotheses are quite likely to be their natural technique.

The Artisan (Tactical Skill Set)

The Artisan’s core needs are to have the freedom to act without hindrance and to see a marked result from action. Artisans highly value aesthetics, whether in nature or art. Their energies are focused on skillful performance, variety, and stimulation. Artisans tend to be gifted at employing the available means to accomplish an end. Their creativity is revealed by the variety of solutions they come up with. They are talented at using tools, whether the tool is language, theories, a paint brush, or a computer.

Temperament information could be utilized in an organization setting by a Human Resource Development professional to form effective groups to better accomplish organizational tasks.  Potentially, groups can outperform individuals in doing similar work, make better decisions because they generate more information, and are more productive because synergies develop.  However, many factors such as group structure, the actions of the group leader, and diversity influence the performance of a group.  Awareness, through temperament information, of the individual tendencies of each group member could assure that the team is working to their fullest potential.

Summary

Temperament affects learning and teaching styles.  Through awareness of temperament, we can develop a myriad of learning (and teaching) methods that will enable us to work to our fullest potential.  We have the ability to change personality, temperament, and character.  In order to be able to successfully solve problems and situations that may require specific learning styles, we must be able to balance our learning preferences with the development of alternative learning strategies.   Temperament information can help us understand our learning styles or tendencies.  We can use this information to develop alternate learning styles so that we can take control of any learning situation.

References

Keirsey, David and Bates, Marily (1984).  Please Understand Me II:  Character and Temperament Types.  De Mar, CA:  Prometheus Nemesis Book Company, De Mar, CA, 1998.

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A. Human Resource Development

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Instructor Resources Tagged With:

Instructor-led and Learner-centered Instructional Strategies

December 10, 2010 By Comments

Instructional strategies provide a plan for assisting the learners with their efforts for each performance objective. Instructional strategies take the form of a lesson plan or a set of production specifications. The purpose is to outline how instructional activities will relate to, and assist the learner with meeting, the performance objectives.

Audio/visual

Audio visual instructional media can play a vital role in enhancing the learning environment. The use of audio/visual media can lengthen the average adult’s attention span by strategically refocusing attention. The combination of audio and visual media is more effective than either medium used alone, with learner retention significantly increased over a longer period of time. The classes of media range from handouts to videos to models to computer software.

Demonstration

Demonstration is the basic method for teaching psychomotor skills. The method begins with a practical step-by-step performance by the instructor of a procedure, with a detailed explanation accompanying each step. A demonstration should be accompanied or immediately followed by having learners practice the activity or skill being demonstrated for reinforcement and retention.

Discussions

Discussions typically begin with the instructor describing the goal or purpose of the discussion. Sometimes discussions may be initiated by the posing of an open-ended question. Instructors can employ a number of techniques to encourage learners to participate in discussions, including calling on specific people, or assigning learners to be an “expert” or leader for various parts of the discussion. Many cooperative activities include a “small group” discussion as teams work together.

Guided Observation

Guided Observation is an interactive process of meeting performance objectives by having learners share information and experiences in the classroom. During a guided observation, the instructor asks focused questions and periodically summarizes concepts and principles but does not attempt to dominate the discussion. Learners are active participants and are asked to explore a subject by actively offering knowledge, ideas, opinions, and experiences.

Lecture

Lecture refers to a formal presentation of information, concepts or principles by an individual. A lecture can be modified to include discussion, demonstration and application.

Practice and Feedback

Practice and feedback increases the probability the learner will remember the concept or skills and also conditions the learner to be better able to perform the skill. Practice and feedback is an important component of learning. If learners are provided with an opportunity to practice what they should be able to do to achieve the learning goal, feedback is elicited as well. Learners will gain a better understanding of what is expected of them to achieve the learning goal, and learning is enhanced. Feedback offers an opportunity to guide the learners into learning. Incorrect answers or demonstration of skills is an opportunity to “teach”. It should never be assumed that just because you have explained to the learners what they should be able to do, that they will actually know how to do it. Practice and feedback allows the learner to gain a better understanding of the content by trying it out themselves. A component of practice and feedback should be built into each training module to allow the learners to try each learning goal for themselves. It is important to have this opportunity during each module rather than waiting until all modules have been presented to allow the learners to feel confident and satisfied before introducing new content.

Question and Answer Periods

Question and answer periods allow learners to ask questions after each module as a method of reinforcing your message and selling your ideas. In addition, because learners can ask for clarification, they are less likely to leave the training with misconceptions about the concepts you delivered.

Reading

Reading allows learners to construct meaning from a text. Reflection encourages learners to think and talk about what they have observed, heard or read. The instructor or student initiates the discussion by asking a question that requires learners to reflect upon and interpret experiences, read or recorded stories, or illustrations. As learners question and recreate information and events, they clarify their thoughts and feelings.

Role-Playing

Role-Playing offers learners an opportunity to act out a situation based on simulated work situations and provides a more valid experience than merely talking about a topic. Learners role-play the attitudes and behaviors involved in carrying out a task or job responsibility.

Simulated Job Settings

Simulated job settings are used to put the learner in a “real” workplace situation so that learners are able to experience consequences of their behavior and decisions.

Summary

Instructor-led instructional strategies produce a guide to help implement the goal of the lesson plan without necessarily conveying its exact content to the learners. The instructor gives directions, refers learners to appropriate materials, directs the class activities, and supplements existing materials with direct instruction.

Learner-centered strategies present a learning objective, an activity guide, the material to be viewed or read, practice exercises, and a self-check testing system for the learner.

By Shirley J. Caruso, M. A. Human Resource Development

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Instructional Strategies, Instructor Resources, Resources & Tools Tagged With: , , , , , , , , ,

Learner Characteristics and Instructional Design

October 20, 2010 By Comments

Two broad categories of human characteristics to consider when designing instruction are individual differences and similarities (Smith & Ragan, 2005).  These individual differences result in adult learners having different learning styles, different attitudes and beliefs, and different educational backgrounds.  Conversely, adult learners share similarities such as the capability to process information, sensory capabilities (hearing, seeing, touching, tasting, smelling), and the capability to cogitate.

Learners and educators have characteristics that are stable or unaffected and characteristics that can be changed, or affected.  Unaffected characteristics include personality type, culture, philosophy, experience, and life phase.  Affected characteristics include learning style, autonomy, values, experience, and self-directedness.

It is important to consider learner characteristics when designing instruction and course development to assure that the majority of the target audience is receptive to the instruction.  This assures that instruction is effective, efficient, and appealing. The most significant characteristic to consider when designing instruction is specific prior knowledge.  This characteristic is indicative of where instruction should begin. Similarities and differences in learner characteristics of a target audience can be assessed through conducting a learning analysis.  Techniques such as questionnaires, surveys, interviews, and observations can be used to gather information about the learners.

Andragogy, as defined by Malcolm Knowles (1984), is a theory based on the psychological definition of adult, which states that people become adults psychologically when they arrive at a self-concept of being responsible for their own lives, of being self-directing.   Resulting from this Knowles’ theory are unique characteristics specific to adult learners as follows:

  • Adults learn best in a participatory and Collaborative Environment.
  • Adults have a problem-centered approach to learning.
  • Adults need to feel self-directed.

Adults Learn Best in a Participatory and Collaborative Environment

Adults tend to learn best when they are actively involved in deciding how and what they will learn, and they thrive on active, hands-on, experiential learning activities in a friendly and communal environment.  Organizing adult learners into groups provides active participation, encourages the exchange of ideas and perspectives, strengthens social and communication skills, develops teamwork and leadership skills, and allows students of mixed abilities to work side by side and draw on individual strengths to complete the task.  The main purpose of a collaborative learning environment is to facilitate the power of synergy in a group situation.  Synergy is the interaction of two or more agents or forces so that their combined effort is far greater than the sum of their individual efforts (Cannon and Griffith, 2007).  Team (experiential) learning encourages communication and cooperation, leading to synergy and respect among members.

In a collaborative learning environment, facilitators and learners take an active role in the learning process, a sense of community is created, and knowledge is considered to lie within the group as a whole rather than individually.  This type of learning environment allows learners to experience knowledge as something that is created rather than something that is transmitted from the facilitator or teacher to the learner (Sheridan, 1989).

Group management is important in this type of environment.  Efficient group management includes giving the learners a clear explanation of the task, an overview of group dynamics with advice on how to work effectively within groups, and organizing smaller rather than larger group sizes to allow optimum participation by all group members.

Learners who are introverts are energized from within and may see a collaborative learning environment as threatening rather than friendly.  The needs of introverts can be met by maintaining small group sizes and allowing breaks to allow learners of this personality type time away from the group situation to regain their inner energy.

Adults Have a Problem Centered Approach to Learning

Adults are problem-centered in their learning orientation. They are motivated to learn to the extent that learning will help them perform tasks or deal with real-life problems. Adult students usually know what they want to learn, and they like to see the program organized toward their personal goals (Knowles, 1989).

Instruction will be more effective if it uses real-life examples or situations that adult learners may encounter in their life or on the job. If students can bring real-life examples into a learning situation, they will be eager to participate and gain the practical experience which will help them perform better in their life or on the job.

Problem based learning (PBL) is a strategy that encourages learners to discover solutions to real life problems.  It allows learners to draw on their prior knowledge (an assumption underlying andragogy is that an adult accumulates a wealth of experience) and build new knowledge.

PBL presents learners with a problem that replicates a real life or job situation.  Learners are given guiding principles on how to arrive at a solution to the problem.  The PBL strategy is usually conducted with learners working in groups (another assumption underlying andragogy is that adults learn best in a participatory and collaborative environment) as set forth in the above discussion.

The goal of PBL is actively engage learners in the analysis of a problem so that factual knowledge is acquired, learners develop research skills, and learners become self-directed (an assumption underlying andragogy that is discussed in the following paragraphs).  The skills gained from the PBL approach form a foundation for future learning contexts and learners are motivated by the real life application of what they have learned.

Adults Need to Feel Self-Directed

Once adults have arrived at the stage where they take responsibility for their own lives, they develop a deep psychological need to be seen and treated by others as being capable of self-direction.

Self-directed learning includes the learner initiating the learning, making the decisions about what, where, when, and how learning will occur. The learner selects and carries out their own learning goals, objectives, methods and means to verify that the goals and objectives of the self-directed learning experience were met.

Self-directed learning becomes even more powerful when the learner uses a systematic approach to determine what areas of knowledge and skills are needed in order to accomplish a task (learning needs and goals), how the areas of knowledge and skills will be acquired (learning objectives and activities), and how the learner will know that skill or knowledge sought has been acquired (learning evaluation).

Designing instruction to consider the self-directed adult learner characteristic would include engaging students in designing the learning process.  Instructional designers should include more than one medium for learning.  Because self-directed adult learners often want control over the pace of the learning, the instructional designer must make sure that the time allocated to the training session is sufficient so that the learners do not feel rushed.  The instructor should serve as a guide to allow the learners to be self-directed and, at the same time, provide support to encourage active, self-directed learning.

Summary

The assessment of learner characteristics is an important aspect of the instructional design process.  Assessing who your learners are and what their specific prior knowledge is helps to assure that instruction is not designed to teach at a level not yet reached by learners or so basic that it doesn’t engage advanced learners.  It also reveals the preferred learning style of the target audience to incorporate the best instructional medium to meet that style.  It is important that the instructional designer realizes that everyone does not learn the way he or she does so as not to impose his or her own preferred learning style on others (Dick, Carey, and Carey, 2005).

Taking adult learner characteristics into consideration when designing instruction assures the instructional goal of delivering training that is efficient, effective, and appealing is met.  When instruction responds to the needs and interests of adult learners, adult learners play an active and participatory role in the learning process, which contributes to successfully meeting the goals of the learning objective.

References

Cannon, M. & Griffith, B. (2007). Effective Groups: Concepts and Skills to Meet Leadership Challenges.  Boston:  Pearson Publishing

Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. (2005).  The Systematic Design of Instruction (6th ed.). Boston:  Pearson Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Knowles, M. S. & Associates. (1984).  Andragogy in Action.  San Francisco:  Jossey-Bass

Knowles, M. S. (1989). The making of an adult educator: An autobiographical journey. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

Sheridan, J. “Rethinking Andragogy: The Case for Collaborative Learning in Continuing Higher Education.” Journal of Continuing Higher Education 37, no. 2 (Spring 1989): pp. 2-6.

Smith, P. L. & Ragan, T. J. (2005).  Instructional Design (3rd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey:  Wiley Jossey-Bass Education

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A. Human Resource Development

Filed Under: Adult Learning, Instructional Design, Instructional Strategies, Instructor Resources Tagged With: , ,

Instructional Strategies for Attitude Change, Motivation, and Interest

October 6, 2010 By Comments

Learning strategies are devices employed by learners to assist in the acquisition of knowledge and skills.  Instruction should guide the learner in the choice of appropriate learning strategies for particular learning tasks.  Facilitating the learning of declarative knowledge, concepts, procedures, principles, problem solving, cognitive, attitudes, and psychomotor skills begins with decisions on what content should be presented, how it should be presented, and in what sequence the instruction should follow (Smith and Ragan, 2005).  Ideally, an instructional strategy should be as generative as possible while still offering motivational support for learners.

Micro-Level Instructional Strategies

Lesson (micro)-level instructional strategies should include an Introduction, Body, Conclusion, and Learning Assessment.  Because adult learners need to know why they need to learn, strategies that deploy attention, arouse interest and motivation, establish instructional purpose, and provide a preview of the lesson should be included in the Introduction.  Strategies that facilitate the recall of prior knowledge, process information, focus attention, facilitate learning, provide practice, and give feedback should be included in the Body.  The Conclusion should include a summary and review, strategies to assure the transfer of knowledge, and exemplification of the usability of the new knowledge.

Exemplification is necessary to demonstrate to adult learners how this new knowledge can be applied in their workplace or daily lives.  Assessment of performance, feedback and remediation should also be included.

Instructional Approaches for Affective Learning

The congnitivist learning theory supports the assumption underlying andragogy that adults have a wealth of previous knowledge and experience.  As adults, we enter into learning situations with predisposed perceptions and judgments that make us more receptive to certain kinds of information and more prone to organize the information in certain ways.

Attitudes are generally affective.  They are concerned with making choices.  Cognitive (knowing how), behavioral (opportunity to practice the desired behavior), and affective (knowing why) are three components of attitude learning.  Instructional designers should be concerned with the behavioral aspect of attitude learning as well as a student’s motivation to learn.

Smith and Ragan (1999) emphasize the importance of three key instructional approaches that focus on the behavioral aspect of attitude learning.  They are demonstration of the desired behavior by a respected role model, practice of the desired behavior, often through role playing, and reinforcement of the desired behavior.  Affective learning outcomes are connected to explicit cognitive goals.

Instructional strategies effective for the cognitive component include the use of acronyms or mnemonics.  Group discussion can be considered an opportunity for practice and feedback.  A concise restatement of the desired behavior should be included in the conclusion, and assessment of the learning would be the observable component of the learners’ future behavior.

Summary

Instructional strategies certainly have their advantages in assisting learners in the acquisition of knowledge and skills.  Instructional designers should carefully perform a task analysis, analyze learners, and the analyze the context when designing instruction to make a determination to facilitate the use of strategies with more direct prompting of learning strategies or more direct and complete instruction.  If inhibitors to use of strategies are present (learners have low skill in strategy use, learners are not motivated, learners do not recognize the applicability of the strategy, learners lack awareness of their own cognitive capabilities, learners are unaware of the learning task, learners have no prior content knowledge, etc.) the instructional designer may need to develop a technique to improve them or choose strategies with more direct prompting or instruction that is more direct.  A continuing goal of the instructional designer is to apply the different types of instructional strategies to best achieve the different types of learning.

References

Smith, P. L. & Ragan, T. J. (2005).  Instructional design (3rd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey:  Wiley Jossey-Bass Education

Smith, P. L. & Ragan, T.J. (1999). Instructional design. New York: John Wiley & Sons

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A. Human Resource Development

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Filed Under: Instructional Design, Instructional Strategies, Instructor Resources Tagged With: ,

Instructional Strategies for Cognitive Strategy Instruction

September 28, 2010 By Comments

Learning strategies are devices employed by learners to assist in the acquisition of knowledge and skills.  Instruction should guide the learner in the choice of appropriate learning strategies for particular learning tasks.  Facilitating the learning of declarative knowledge, concepts, procedures, principles, problem solving, cognitive, attitudes, and psychomotor skills begins with decisions on what content should be presented, how it should be presented, and in what sequence the instruction should follow (Smith and Ragan, 2005).  Ideally, an instructional strategy should be as generative as possible while still offering motivational support for learners.

Micro-Level Instructional Strategies

Lesson (micro)-level instructional strategies should include an Introduction, Body, Conclusion, and Learning Assessment.  Because adult learners need to know why they need to learn, strategies that deploy attention, arouse interest and motivation, establish instructional purpose, and provide a preview of the lesson should be included in the Introduction.  Strategies that facilitate the recall of prior knowledge, process information, focus attention, facilitate learning, provide practice, and give feedback should be included in the Body.  The Conclusion should include a summary and review, strategies to assure the transfer of knowledge, and exemplification of the usability of the new knowledge.

Exemplification is necessary to demonstrate to adult learners how this new knowledge can be applied in their workplace or daily lives.  Assessment of performance, feedback and remediation should also be included.

Instructional Approaches to Teaching Cognitive Learning Strategies

Learning strategies are naturally cognitively based.  They can be broken down into two categories:  Cognitive domain strategies (organization, rehearsal, elaboration) and Affective domain strategies (self-motivational skills such as time management, stress reduction techniques).

Seven approaches to teaching cognitive strategies as identified by Pressley, Snyder, and Cargilia-Bull (1987) are discovery and guided discovery (instructor leads the learner to discover a particular strategy), observation (cooperative application of cognitive strategies with paired learners), guided participation (the learners and instructor together determine the characteristics of a learning task), strategy instruction in books and courses (predetermined instruction on strategies), direct explanation, largely teacher directed (teaches the procedure of the strategy), dyadic instruction (one-to-one interaction between the learner and a knowledgeable adult), and self-instructional training (self-directed learning and active interactions with a teacher who provides model and feedback)   (as cited in Smith and Ragan, 2005).  Learning strategies are generated by contrasting the new strategy with strategies the learner already knows.  Assessment of performance should be ongoing and is based on the learners’ ability to apply the strategy to appropriate learning tasks.

Summary

Instructional strategies certainly have their advantages in assisting learners in the acquisition of knowledge and skills.  Instructional designers should carefully perform a task analysis, analyze learners, and the analyze the context when designing instruction to make a determination to facilitate the use of strategies with more direct prompting of learning strategies or more direct and complete instruction.  If inhibitors to use of strategies are present (learners have low skill in strategy use, learners are not motivated, learners do not recognize the applicability of the strategy, learners lack awareness of their own cognitive capabilities, learners are unaware of the learning task, learners have no prior content knowledge, etc.) the instructional designer may need to develop a technique to improve them or choose strategies with more direct prompting or instruction that is more direct.  A continuing goal of the instructional designer is to apply the different types of instructional strategies to best achieve the different types of learning.

References

Smith, P. L. & Ragan, T. J. (2005).  Instructional design (3rd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey:  Wiley Jossey-Bass Education

By Shirley J. Caruso, M.A. Human Resource Development

Filed Under: Instructional Design, Instructional Strategies, Instructor Resources, Needs and Task Analysis Tagged With: ,
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